Integration of lattice mismatched semiconductor materials is one path to high performance semiconductor devices, such as complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) field-effect transistors (FET), due to their high carrier mobility. For example, germanium (Ge) heteroepitaxy on silicon (Si) is promising both for, for example, high-performance p-channel metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (p-channel MOSFETs) and as a potential path for integrating optoelectronic devices with silicon CMOS technology. Heteroepitaxially growing germanium on silicon also is a path for providing a substitute for germanium wafers for many other applications such as photovoltaics and light-emitting diodes, provided that a germanium surface can be obtained cost-effectively.